Review of the Book “Metaphor We live By” written by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson

Reviewed by

Imran Khan

Master of Philosophy in Linguistics

In Metaphors We Live By, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson points out that, metaphor functions as vehicle for understanding one thing in terms of another. The main argument that justifies the title “Metaphors We Live By” is that metaphor guides our everyday action and thought. In other words, the authors argue that human beings are metaphorical being and most of our thinking pattern involves metaphor.

The notion of Love is understood through the metaphors of journey, patient, physical force, war, etc. Abstract concepts such as life, love and time etc. are not clearly delineated in our experience that is why it is understood and acted in terms of metaphor.

The author takes up the question of how we understand our experience.

The author describes that there is an interesting chain process when we try to understand our experience. First, experiences are manifestation of complex emotions, controversies and feelings. But when we try to understand our experiences through language, it triggers the chain process. The metaphor facilitates us to access to language, and connects us back with the chain. The main point is that the nature of our understanding of experience and feeling is circular and metaphor actually provides the link that closes the circle. Metaphor is core of the methods we understand our lives, the title of the book justifies.

Concepts like wasting time, attacking positions, going our separate ways, etc., are generated by the system of metaphor that steer our thought and action but they  are conventionally placed  within the vocabulary of English as a poetic device.

 Metaphor is an integral part of our everyday language being unaware of it and it further supports the idea that the process of understanding our experience, thought, speech and action is circular. But interestingly the experience itself must, at some level, influence the metaphor we use to comprehend it. In the process of circular construct of experience metaphor gets strengthen. For instance, the book describes that the metaphors “love is war” and “argument is war”. But how do we understand the experience of war? It is obvious that the experience of war is more concrete than love, and it is more visible and clear than argument, but can we understand such a horrendous activity of war in terms of general love, excluding metaphor?. After all, as it is under discussion that war is hate, war is money, war is power, war is terrorism, war is theatre, etc. Even though we use war to understand other experiences, we still need other experiences to understand war.

The study of metaphor becomes important because it combines reason and imagination. Reason, deals with classification and drawing conclusions. Imagination, deals with knowing one kind of thing in terms of another kind of thing what we have called metaphorical thought. Metaphor is thus imaginative rationality. Since the categories of our everyday thought are largely metaphorical and our everyday reasoning involves metaphorical entailments and inference, ordinary rationality is therefore imaginative by its very nature. Given our understanding of poetic metaphor in terms of metaphorical entailments and inferences, we can see that the products of the poetic imagination are, for the same reason, partially rational in nature.

The relationships between imagination and rationality explains that why we understand one thing in terms of other. For example, war is not something that everybody has experienced, but it can be imagined. However, if it is experienced it cannot be expressed as it is. There are some hard questions regardless the actual experience of war. So, metaphor unites what one can inferred logically of an experience to be and what one can more intuitively envision an experience to be.

Love is not a concept that has a clearly delineated structure; whatever structure it has it gets only via metaphors. Those ideas which are difficult to explain and understand i.e. emotional or abstract but also for almost all universal ideas and experiences, we allow metaphor (the combination of our rational and imaginative thought about something) to guide our understanding. Without metaphor, these experiences become not meaningless, but structure-less and therefore indecipherable.

Life and Works of Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Mujaddid Alf Thani)

Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi was born at Sirhind on Friday, 26^th May, 1561 A.D. Abul Barkat Badruddin was his original name. His father Shaikh 'Abdul Ahad, was a famous mystic at that time.  Shaikh Ahmad received his early education at home and also memorized the Quran at early age.  After learning Qur`an by heart, he started education from other scholars of Sirhind. His father taught him the books of Thsawwuf like Taarruf, Fususul Hikam, Awariful Maarif. Yaqub Kashmiri taught him Hadith and  Maulana Kamal Kashmiri taught him philosophy. They were   well-known scholars of that time.  While studying Hadith and Tafsir at Agra, he came into contact with   Abul Fazal and Faizy. They tried to include him into their circle due to his impressive thoughts.[1]

After completing his education, the Shaikh begin with mystic order under the direction and guidance of his father Shaikh Abdul Ahad and received khilafat from him in the Chishtiya,Qaderiya and Suhrawardiya disciplines.[2] When his father died, he went Delhi where he met Baqi Billah a great teacher of Naqshbandiya thought and soon became his student. He also said that due to Baqi Billa’s spiritual guidance he got out of the labyrinth of Wahdatul Wujud. He spent his life in struggle to revive the Islam in its original form.  After an eventful life of sixty three years, Shaikh Ahmad breathed his last on the 10th December, 1624 A.D.

Works of Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was a prolific writer he contributed several books as a part of his revivalist movement.  His important books include: 

(1)  Rasail Radd Rawafid                         ,

(2) Rasail Sharh Rubaiat

(3)  Risalatut Tahlilia,

(4)  Ithbatun Nubuwa                                                          ,

(5) Mabda wa Maad                                ,

(6) Risalai Maarifi Ladunna

(7) Mukashifati  Aynia,

(8) Maktubat Imam Rabbani.[3]

1. Ithbatun Nubwa: It is written in Arabic, manuscript received from the library of Mujaddidia family. Its Urdu translation was published by the library of 'Idarai Mujaddidia Nazim abad, Karachi' in 1383 A. H., along with its original Arabic text. Later on Idarai Sa,dia Mujaddidia, Lahore, published it in 1385 A. H., with its original Arabic including  Rasail.

2. Rasail Radde Rawafid: (Persian) Most probably this book was written in reply to the Risala of a certain Shi'a scholar of Iran, about 1001 A. H. Many times many publishers published this book along with its original Persian text of the maktubat. Publisher Hashmat Ali Khan published it from Rampur in 1384/ A.H, with its original Persian text along with the Urdu translation of Professor Dr. Ghulam Mustafa Khan. Later on Idarai Sa 'dia Mujaddidia, Lahore published its Urdu translation and original Persian text separately. Hadrat Shah Waliullah Muhaddith Dhlavi wrote its Sarah, which is yet to be published.

3. Risalatut Tahlilia (Arabic): The book was written in the year 1010 A. H. Its original manuscript is also available. Idarai Mujaddidia, Nazimabad, Karachi published its original Arabic text along with its Urdu translation in 1384 A. H. Idarai sa dia Mujaddidia, Lahore also published its original Arabic text along with other Rasail in 1385 A.H.

4. Rasail Sharh Ruba'iat (Persian): This book contains two Ruba 'iat of Hadrat Khawaja Baqi Billah, along with his own Sharh and with the Sharh of Hadrat Mujaddid Af Thani (r.) It has been published by Idarai Sa 'dia Mujaddidia of Lahore and Idarai Mujaddidia Nazimabad, Karachi, in the year 1385 and 1386 A. H. respectively. Hadrat Shah Waliullah (r.) has also written a commentary on it entitled 'Kashful Ghain Fi Sharhi Ruba itain' and the book was published by Idarai Majtabai, Delhi in the year 1310 A.H.

5. Risalai Ma 'arifi Ladunnia (Persian): This book deals with the spiritual sufi order of Mujaddidia. It was written by the Mujaddid in the year 1015 or 1016 A. H. In the book, he set 41 topics with the caption" Ma'arifat" for each of them. This book was published by Hafiz Muhammad ' Ali Khan, from Matba 'I Ahmadi, in the year 1898 A.D. After that, for many times it was published by the Idarai Sa 'dia Mujaddidia and Idarai Mujaddidia, Nazimabad, Karachi and Lahore respectively.

6. Mabda wa Ma 'ad (Persian): In this book the Shaikh traversed a long range of spiritual domain including its varied experiences, disciplines and orders. Mulana Muhammad Siddique Kashmi, the Khalifa of Mujaddid Alf Thani edited it in the year 1019 A. H. and separated each topic from another with the word " Minha"81 The oldest edition of this book was published by Maktabai Ansari of Delhi, in the year 1307 A. H. Later on, different publishers published the book many times. Idarai Mujddidia, Nazimabad, Karachi, published the latest edition of this book in the year 1388 A.H., with the Urdu translation of Maulana Sayed Zewar Houssain Shah, along with its original Persian text. It was translated into Arabic by Mural Makki, and is available in the foot-note of the Maktubat Sharif published by Mu 'rab.82

7. Mukashifati 'Aynia: The treatise bears the title of Mukashifati 'Aynia. But in some references it has been quoted as Mukashifati ghaybia.83. It contains the spiritual discourses and some Ijazat- formal permission of the Shaikh to some of his disciples. After the death of Mujaddid Alf Thani, Maulana Hashim Kashmi edited it in the year 1051 A. H. The Idarai Mujaddidia, Nazimabad, Karachi, published the book in the year 1348 A. H. with its Urdu translation along with its original Persian text.

8. Maktubat Imam Rabbani (Persian): It is in three volumes. First volume contains 313Maktubs, second volume 99 Maktubs and the third volume 124 Maktubs. In total it contains 536 Maktubs. Except 25 Maktubs written in Arabic, all other Maktubs are written in Persian. In first volume Maktub Nos. 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 120, 135, 158, 205, 247, 289, 297, 303, and 308; in second volume Maktub Nos. 19, 51, and 66 and in the third volume Maktub Nos. 45, 46, 51, 74, 117, 118, and 119 are in Arabic. The first volume bears the title of Durarul Ma 'rifat, the second volume Nurul Khhalaiq and the third volume Ma 'ariful Haqaiq. Imam Rabbani Mujaddid Alf Thani (r.) wrote these Maktubs mainly to his followers and disciples. But he addressed 20 letters to his spiritual guide Khawaja Baqi Billah (r.), one letter to Sultan Nuruddin Jahangir and one to Harday Ram, a Hindu spiritual leader. It is interesting to note that of all these Maktubs only two

letters were written to two of his lady disciples.[4] The first volume of the Maktub was edited by Moulana Yar Muhammad Jadid Badakhshani Taliqani, in the year 1025 A. H. The second volume of the Maktub was edited by Maulana' Abdul Hai Hisari alsadmani, in the year 1028 A. H., according to the instruction of Khawaja Muhammad Ma`sum (r.) the son of the Mujaddid and the third volume was edited by Maulana Hashim Kashmi86 in the year 1031 A. H. The Maktubat was first published by the Matba 'I Nawal Kishore, Lucknow. Later on from this press many editions of it had been published. Afterwards it has been repeatedly published by the Matba 'I Ahmadi, Delhi and Matba 'I Murtadai, Delhi respectively. The Maktubat Imam Rabbani has been also translated into many languages. It has been translated into urdu, Arabic, Turkish and Bengali Languages. Maktubat of   Mujadid Alif Sani is considered his most significant and influential writings expressing his deep affections and spiritual realities. It shows his intellectual brilliance and the originality of thought which earned him the name of Mujaddid Alf Sani. He was a scholar of the sub-continent and was highly revered which has been rated highly by the intellectuals of other parts of the world. Due to the unique engaging literary style and sublime ccontent it has been made one of the principle books by various Sufi orders.

Critical Review of Din i Ilahi

The approach of the emperor Akbar is still disputed issue for the historians of Mughal Rule in Hindustan. Some historians like Muhammad Husain Azaad, S.R. Sharma, Dr. R.P. Tripathi, Dr. Ishwari Prasad and others have taken pains to argue that Akbar lived and died as a Muslim, and that Din i IIahi was neither a religion nor Akbar ever intended for the establishment of a church, and reject the testimony of Badauni as reckless and indiscriminate and swayed by fanaticism.[5] Their argument rests on the ground that Badauni's charges are not substantiated by Abul Fadl and other contemporary accounts save the Jesuit versions, which, however, show reliance on hearsay and apprehensions of the orthodox party in Akbar's court. These historians place confidence only in court chronicles and give little importance to the contemporary accounts found in the biographies, memoirs, letters and the discourses of the Sufis and Shaikhs written during the period.[6] What is still surprising, they lightly, pass over the references to Akbar's un-Islamic views and measures given in the Ain Akbari itself.[7] There are a few references even in the other writings of Abul Fadl; as, for example, in the Akbar Nama.[8] Akbar is described as enlisting thousands of disciples (chelas) to his new religion in the twenty seventh year of his rule, and Ain Akbari also mentions many thousands novices belonging to all classes.[9] These historians are never weary of praising Abul Fadl's catholicity and broadmindedness, but conveniently forget that, several historians who have studied Abul Fadl's writings have accused him of suppressing the truth.[10]

Letters of Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi

The letters of the Mujaddid include a large number of epistles of those nobles of the royal court who were already devoted to him. Such letters are either instructive or (explanatory in regard to the discipline of mysticism or) urge strongly the addressees to give greater importance to the saving of their souls in the hereafter than their worldly advancement. The addressees of such letters are 'Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan (d.1036/1627 A.D.), Qalij Khan (d.1023/1614 A.D.), Khawaja Jahan (d.1029/1620 A.D.), Mirza Durab b. Khan Khanan (d.1034 A.D.) and many others also. The instructive tone of the letters to these nobles shows a marked resemblance to those, written by Shaikh Ahmad to his other spiritual disciples. He demonstrates with them on their failings, advices them the course to be followed by them and expresses joy on their progress on the path of spirit. These letters tend to show that these nobles, spiritually attached to the Mujaddid would surely have, in accordance with the instructions of their spiritual guide, tried to win over the Emperor to Islam. They would have undoubtedly cooperated in this task with the other courtiers of Jahangir whom their Shaikh had been constantly imploring and urging for restoration of the Islamic character of the Mughal Empire.[11]

The endeavor of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi consisted of reviving the thought and spirit of Islam in India, and aimed at curbing the greatest menace of the time by restoring conviction in the Prophethood of Muhammad (s) and reasserting the abiding truth of Shari'a. Shaikh Ahmad demonstrated the hollowness of theosophical thought based on neo-Platonist theosophy which professed to attain the knowledge of Allah through spiritual ecstasy, unrelated to the path shown by the Prophet (s.). The theory of 'Wahdatul Wujud' (Unity of Being) or 'Hama ust' (All is He), had captured the heart and mind of Muslims masses so powerfully that their conviction in the truth of Islam was gradually giving place to an eclecticism, which was giving rise to the danger of a complete disintegration of the Muslim society. Mujaddid presented the alternative theory of 'Wahdatus Shuhud-Unity of Manifestation, or Hama az Ust' (All is from Him), launched a vigorous attack against bida (innovation in religion), denied the commonly accepted bidat-i-hasanah (pious innovation) and revolutionized the Muslim society in a way that it completely discarded Akbar's thought.[12] Regarding mysticism, he expresses that any Sufi experience that is rejected by the sharia is heresy, and the Maktübat contain countless exhortations to follow the sunna and comply with the sharia.[13] Mujaddid started his well-conceived plan of reform and renovation so thoughtfully that, on the one hand, a man like Muhiuddin Auwrangzib (1658-1707 A.D.) ascended the throne once occupied by Akbar and, on the other, Shah Waliullah (1702-1762), and his successors took upon themselves the task of bringing about a religious awakening and spiritual regeneration of the Indian Muslims through teaching and preaching of the Holy Qur'an and the Sunna of the Prophet (s.). They triggered a chain of educational institutions to be set up, reformed the Muslim society of its un- Islamic customs and usages, and made India a centre of Islamic learning, particularly that of Hadith. It was, thus, through the efforts of the Mujaddid that India became the focal point of Islamic thought and a harbinger of its call.

Conclusion

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was the only luminary whose revivalist endeavor has already gained a recognition, which is not shared by any reformer in the long history of Islamic revivalism. In fact, such was his success that the posterity conferred upon him the title of Mujaddid Alf Thani-Renovator of the second Millennium, with which even modern educated persons are more acquainted than his personal name. His unparalleled achievements in the field of reformation are still unequalled. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was conjoiner between Shari'a and Tariqa. Before him it was observed that Shari'a is one and Tariqa is another. Due to which there was no good relation between the Ulama and Sufis. It was the great Shaikh who clearly expressed that Shari'a is the real thing and Tariqa is its servant. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi also vehemently opposed the then pantheistic conception of Wahdatul Wujud, which had become almost universal amongst all the then and previous Muslim mystics and established the conception of Wahdatush shuhud which was accepted by almost all of the eminent scholars and mystics of the time. Din i Ilahi. of Akbar was considered a dangerous turning point in the history of Muslim India. It laid open to a comprehensive danger of religious, intellectual and cultural apostasy. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was the only personality who came forward with a will to eradicate and put a stop to the abuses of the time and uphold the banner of Sharia. He put up a strong resistance against the government policies, fearlessly faced the displeasure of the Emperor and even chose to be persecuted. He stood firm as a rock against all tyrannical oppression. His stand against anti-islamic practices resulted in a religious renaissance in India.  Moreover, at that time innovations in religious matters were popular, while some of them going under the name of 'Pious innovations' had been accepted by the  Muslim society,[14] without a voice raised against them. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi emphatically rejected any and every kind of innovation which corrupts the religion of Islam and cautioned the Umma against the menace of it.[15] According to him, anything not prevailing during the life time of the Prophet (s.) could not be beneficial for the Muslims nor contribute anything to their spiritual development. He gave a clarion call to re-establish the Sunna of the Prophet (s.) and overthrow all kinds of innovations. In fact, the core of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi’s reforms was consisted of reviving the true thought and spirit of Islam. It aimed at curbing the innovations in Islam at that time and restoring conviction in the Prophethood of Muhammad (s.) and reasserting   Sharia.  Mujaddid started his well conceived plan of reform and renovation so thoughtfully that, he was able to bring about  religious awakening and spiritual regeneration of the Indian Muslims through teaching and preaching the Quran  and Sunna of the Prophet (s.).

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi initiated a Tariqa which is known as Mujaddedia Tariqa. There are hundreds and thousands of adherents to it throughout the world. In this Tariqa the followers are strictly guided to follow the path of the holy Prophet (s.) to have success in this world and the world hereafter.

In short, the silent revolution of the great Mujaddid to rejuvenate Islam without shedding any blood is an epoch making journey in the field of reformative movements.

Bibliography  

Ahmad, M.,[ 1983]:  Saviours of Islamic Spirit.  Vol. III. Academy of Islamic Research and Publications, Nadwatul Ulama, Lucknow

Ihsan, M.,[ N.D ]:  Rawdatul Qayyumia. Civil Steam Press, Lohore

Mian, M.,[ 1942]:  Ulamai Hind Ka Shandar Madi, Delhi

Sharif, M, M.,[ 1963]:  History of Muslim Philosophy. Germany

SIddique,A, B.,[ 2011]: Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms, Research & Publication department Khanka-e-Mujaddidia, Dhaka

Friedmann,Y., [1966]: Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi; An Outline of his Thought and a Study of his Image In the Eyes of Posterity. Institute of Islamic Studies McGill University,  Montreal

http://love-real.com/english-translation-maktubat-imam-rabn

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[1] 'Ihsan, M.,  Rawdatul Qayyumia. Civil Steam Press, Lohore, (N.D.). PP. 62-63

[2] Ibid

[3] Mian, M., Ulamai Hind Ka Shandar Mazi, Delhi, 1942.p 261

[4] http://love-real.com/english-translation-maktubat-imam-rabni  

Letter No. 17 and 47 of the vol III

[5] SIddique, A, B.,  Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms, Research & Publication department Khanka-e-Mujaddidia, Dhaka 2011. P 122

[6] Ibid

[7] Ibid

[8] Ibid

[9] Ibid

[10] Ibid

[11]Ahmad, M.,  Saviours of Islamic Spirit.  Vol. III. Academy of Islamic Research and Publications, Nadwatul Ulama, Lucknow, 1983.

[12] Sharif, M, M.,  History of Muslim Philosophy. Germany, 1963. P 876

[13] Friedmann, Y.,  Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi; An Outline of his Thought and a Study of his Image In the Eyes of Posterity. Institute of Islamic Studies McGill University Montreal 1966. P 56

[14] Sharif, M, M.,  History of Muslim Philosophy. Germany, 1963

[15] Ibid 

Russian Worldviews: The Origin and Development of Russian Intelligentsia in 1830s

Introduction     

Focusing on the 1830s, my study deals with origin and development of intelligentsia in the history of Russia and its impact on upcoming socio-political ideologies. It throws light on emerging philosophical thought with a view to establish and reinforce uniqueness of the Russian society in the world. Moreover, it highlights issues including: importance of peter Chaadaev’s scathing critique of Russia’s predicament for providing a viable solution in terms of westernizing Russia, counterarguments of the Slavophiles bringing revival to a distinct set of communal traditions and freedom. This study attempts to describe the juxtaposition of the debate between the Slovophiles and Westerners about the importance of individual rights for analyzing serfdom, autocracy, and social discriminations through logical arguments. Finally, a comparison is drawn between thoughts of Westernizes and Slavophil.

Justification

  This study highlights importance of debate between Slavophils and Westerners and its impact on the formation of the future worldview of the Russian society. The study is important for understanding the role of intelligentsia in bringing social change in a particular society at a certain period. The study will be helpful for the students of political science and history to understand the evolution of thought in Russia.  

Methodology

The study is descriptive analytical and it uses secondary data sources consisting of books, Journals, Research articles and internet sources.

Literature Review

Mark D. Steinberg, Ph.D in “A History of Russia: From Peter the Great to Gorbachev” gives an account of the history of Russia with special focus on human experience, ideas, and values and especially on the lives and thoughts of individuals, both notable and ordinary. Chapter 11 and 12 from page 30 to 33 deals with the birth of intelligentsia in the 1830s designated as Slavophil and Westerners and its impact on the philosophical and political developments in the history of Russia.

An important  article “Slovophile” by the editor of the Encyclopedia Britannica throws light on the origin  of the  Slavophil intellectual movement and their arguments against the westernized reforms introduced by Peter the Great (reigned 1682–1725) and modeling the uncorrupted Russian peasant commune  system for the development of Russia.

A succinct account of the two intellectual movements of the 1830 and 1840s presented in the article published in RIA Novost (Electronic Newspaper) by the title “The history of Slavophiles and Westernizers in Russia”. It describes that Slavophiles advocated Russia’s peculiar way of progress, whereas the Westernizers emphasized on the need to follow Western way of life and Western social and political system.

Discussion

The Slovophiles and Westerners philosophical thoughts surfaced in the 1840s and the 1850s. The Slavophiles promoted Russia’s peculiar way of progress, whereas the Westernizers emphasized to follow Western modes of life.

The word “Slovophile” was used in ironical sense by the Poet Konstantin Batyushkov  to refer to a certain perfect idea, and the term “Westernization” came to Russian language and culture  in the 1840s and was appeared  in the writings of famous literary critic  Ivan Panayev, and came into fashion after a divide between Konstantin Aksakov and  Vissarion Belinsky in 1840.[1]

Archimandrite Gavriil (Vasily Voskresensky), laid the foundation of the Slavophile movement, his book Russian Philosophy in 1840 made it possible to evaluate the new movement.

 Slovophiles and westernizers shared some ideological outlooks, they were both strongly convinced by German Romantic philosophers (especially Friedrich Schelling and Georg Wilhem Friedrich Hegel) and the belief that the reality is “organic” and “whole.”[2] Thus, the search of truth is not only possible through pure reasoning but also through intuition and senses.  These ideas had a profound effect on determining the place of Russian society in the whole scheme of universe. The Westernizers and Slavophiles were romantic in their attitude in dealing with ideas and the meaning of life. They highly valued poetry, nature, friendship and romantic love.[3] In 1836, Petr Chaadaev’s “first philosophical letter” was published which increased the differences between both the intellectual groups.[4]  He boldly argued that the culture of Russia has become empty and meaningless. He further argued that Russian civilization was not evolving normally like other civilizations of the world. He also claimed that the existence of Russia is unique because it lies between the boarders of Europe and Asia, but it failed to be either West or East and it also lost its originality as well. Chaadaev’s argument aggravated the differences and the government also took notice his ideas and put him under house arrest and dubbed him as mad person.[5]

Slovophil were very critical about his view and criticized him and established that Russia’s distinct way of historical development was completely different from the Western European model. They believed that Russia’s uniqueness lied in the communal spirit which preserved popular tradition.

Writers, poets and academics Alexei Khomyakov, Ivan Kireyevsky, Konstantin Aksakov and Yury Samarin played the lead in elaborating the Slavophile doctrine. Other notable Slavophiles included Alexander Koshelev, Dmitry Valuyev, Fyodor Chizhov, Ivan Belyayev, Alexander Gilferding, Vladimir Lamansky and Vladimir Cherkassky. Writers Vladimir Dahl, Alexander Ostrovsky, Apollon Grigoryev, Fyodor Tyutchev and Nikolai Yazykov supported socio-ideological aspects of the Slavophile doctrine. Historians and linguists Fyodor Buslayev, Osip Bodyansky and Dmitry Grigorovich also were supportive of the Slavophile concepts.[6]

Moscow was the stronghold of Slavophile movement in the 1840s. The Slavophiles and Westernizers engaged in debates at the Yelagin, Sverbeyev and Pavlov literary salons. Slavophile writers faced heavy censorship in the press, and some of their members were closely monitored by the police and some of them were sent to jails. This censorship policy on behalf of the government, Slavophiles did not have their own publications and mostly published their works in the Moskvityanin magazine. It was in the 1850s, they got the opportunity of publishing the Russkaya Beseda (Russian Conversation) and Selskoye Blagoustroistvo (Rural Improvement) magazines and the Molva (Common Talk) and Parus (Sail) newspapers.

On the question of the progress of Russia, the Slavophiles rejected the Westernizers view and strongly opposed the transporting of Western European ideals to Russian society. However, they were in favour of the development of industries and commerce, the establishment of new financial institutions, construction of railroads and modernization of farming. The Slavophiles were  against serfdom and advocated for land reforms in Russia. [7]

Khomyakov, Kireyevsky and Samarin, the main Slavophile philosophers were of the view that communal spirit which they called “sobornost” and orthodoxy were the core of the Russian popular traditions. But they also invoked the intellectuals to go to the people observe their life, customs and traditions and their language.

 Vladimir Solovyov, Nikolai Berdyayev, Sergei Bulgakov, Lev Karsavin and Pavel Florensky explored Slovophile ideas in their works in late 19th century and the early 20th century. In several respects, the Slavophiles did not wholly adhered to traditional notions but idealistic utopians and even radicals and revivalists.

The competing discourse against the Slovophile was that of the   Westernizers. They were relatively larger but dispersed and loosely connect as compared to the Slovophil who were less in number but were a coherent body. Alexander Herzen recorded the debate between the two groups in his book My Past and Thoughts. Moscow Westernizers group consisted of Alexander Herzen, Timofei Granovsky, Nikolai Ogaryov, Vasily Botkin, Nikolai Ketcher, Yevgeny Korsh, Konstantin Kavelin. One of the prominent figures among them was Belinsky from St. Petersburg.  Ivan Turgenev a proponent of the movement refused to accept feudalism and serfdom based system of economy, social life and culture, and asked for socio-economic reforms on western patterns. Dostoyevsky’s well known  The Idiot and his memoirs of Europe, Winter Notes on Summer Impressions, influenced the literary circles. Winter Notes on Summer Impressions enhanced his understanding of European way of life in the cities.[8] His travels revealed on him the Western hypocrisy and a degenerated culture pervaded with corruption.

The Idiot signified that people cannot live in evil environments, comparing traditional Russian values and corrupted Europe. Simultaneously, Turgenev’s Fathers and Sons and, later, Virgin Soil came out. Like Dostoyevsky, Turgenev philosophical beliefs intermingled into his writings. He sticks to the nihilist ideology. His fiction Fathers and Sons was the start of the radicalists outlook. He juxtaposed the old generation and the new generation. Along with philosophical debates, the Westernizers thought it possible to establish a middle class democracy by peaceful means. They were of the view that education and promotion of the reforms agenda could create a pressure on the Tsar to initiate reforms. Also, they also gave much value to Peter the Great’s reforms.[9]

They emphasized on the commonalities between the West and Russia rather than disagreements between them. In the mid-1840s, the Westernizers movement divided into the liberal and radical groups after a  disagreement  between Herzen and historian Timofei Granovsky. Annenkov, Granovsky, Kavelin and some others joined the liberal camp, whereas the revolutionary included Herzen, Ogaryov and Belinsky. The two groups had diametrically opposite views about religion. Granovsky and Korsh had faith in immortality of the soul, while the democrats and Botkin promoted materialistic view of the world. They were also pole apart on the strategy on pre-reform and post-reform development in Russia. The radicals were in favour of revolutionary struggle and the establishment of socialism.  Esthetic and philosophical circles of Russia also reflected these currents of ideas.[10]

Johann von Schiller, Georg Hegel and Friedrich Schelling, and later by Ludwig von Feuerbach, Auguste Comte and Henri de Saint Simon had a profound influence on the early Westernizers. The Westernizers were vanished as a distinct feature of Russian public thought after the reforms of Alexander II. His reforms were in favour of   capitalist style of development. The Westernizers’ philosophy was taken up by the Russian liberal intellectual of the late 19th century and the early 20th century.[11]

Conclusion

 Slavophilism and Westernism had a substantially great impact on Russian history. The increasing Westernization that had been started by Peter the Great proved in the next century Europeanization irreversible. On the question of where Russia’s stands between the East and West, these groups of intellectuals endeavored to search the final answers. Many professed religion, such as Khomiakov and his orthodox approach to Slavophilism. On the contrary, many argued in favour of agnosticism and secularism in order to understand the evolving Russian socio-political trajectories. From this, the two groups grown and start to impact the Russian Intelligentsia, Russian culture, life and their way of thinking.[12]

Bibiliography

James Edie, James Scanlan, and Mary-Barbara Zeldin, Russian Philosophy (Chicago, 1965), vol. 1

  http://www.britannica.com 

Steinberg. D. Mark, A History of Russia: From Peter the Great to Gorbachev. (2003). The Teaching Company Limited Partnership.

http://www.en.ria.ru.com

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[1] http://en.ria.ru/analysis/20100902/160436673.html accessed April 1,2014

[2] Steinberg. D. Mark, A History of Russia: From Peter the Great to Gorbachev. The Teaching Company Limited Partnership. 2003, p.30

[3] Ibid

[4] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/548498/Slavophile . accessed March 28, 2014

[5] Steinberg. D. Mark, A History of Russia: From Peter the Great to Gorbachev. The Teaching Company Limited Partnership. 2003, pp.30-31

[6] http://en.ria.ru/analysis/20100902/160436673.html accessed April 1,2014

[7] James Edie, James Scanlan, and Mary-Barbara Zeldin, Russian Philosophy (Chicago, 1965), vol. 1, pp. 101–269.

[8] ibid

[9] ibid

[10] http://en.ria.ru/analysis/20100902/160436673.html accessed April 1,2014

[11] ibid

[12] ibid

Sayed Jamal Al Din Al Afghani and Educational Reforms

Early life and origin

Jamal Uddin Afghani (1838-1897) was born at Asadabad of Kunar in Afghanistan. He is considered one of the prominent amongst earliest progressive reformers of Muslim World during nineteen century. Moreover, opinion varies about his birth place. Some sources claim that he was born in Iran while majority of the authentic sources supported the claim that he was born in a village of Kunar province in Afghanistan named Asadabad.[1]  His father  Safdar was a learned person and belonged to the politically influential family of Sadaat of his town, and Amir Dost Muhammad Khan confiscated his land apprehending that he might side with his majesty’s rivals and brought him to Kabul along with his family to reside there on state assistance.[2] Al Afghani received his early education from his father, and he also remained student of grand Ulema such as Sayed Faqir Badsha, Maulana Muhammad Hassan (known as Hafiz Daraz Peshawari) and Maulana Mian Muhammad Wasim Kaka Khel.[3] His biographers describe him as a genius of the time due to his immense mental abilities; till the age of eighteen he was well versed in fiqh, interpretation of Quran and Hadith, logic, mysticism, mathematics, astronomy, metaphysics, and medicine, he had excellent command on Persian, Arabic, Turkish, French and English languages.[4]

He got the position of counsellor to the King Dost Mohammad Khan and Mohammad Azam. At that time he tried to introduce reforms but he did not succeed. In 1868, when Sher Ali Khan captured the throne of Kabul, Al-Afghani was sent into exile.[5] In 1871, Al-Afghani travelled to Egypt, started disseminating his thoughts of modern reforms, but traditional Ulema dubbed him as radical and in 1879 he was expelled. He also visited Western and Eurasians and Indian cites such as Constantinople, London, Paris, Moscow, St. Petersburg, Hyder Abad, and Munich.

 Jamal Al Din Afghani is regarded one of those early reformers who were in favor of reinterpreting Islamic ideas and to reconcile modern western scientific knowledge with Islam by advocating useful values required for life in modern world. Al Afghani’s Reforms included emphasis on, the unabated use of reason and logic, and acquiring scientific and philosophical knowledge and political struggle. He himself was a religious thinker, modernist reformer, writer, journalist, and liberator.

Jamal al din al Afghani started extensive travelling to different parts of the world at the age of eighteen which left a mark on his life.  It seems that his modernist thoughts developed during his visits to Europe, Russia, and India. He spent his last days in Turkey and died in mysterious condition in Turkey in 1897.[6]

Major Works

His major works included:

1.        Tatimmat al-bayan fi tarikh al-Afghan in 1901;

2.      Al-Radd 'ala al-Dahriyyi in 1881. The work is about a call for the unity of Muslim Brotherhood. It also argues against Darwin’s theory of evolution; however, in his later work Khatirat Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani ("the Ideas of Al-Afghani") he partially approves the validity of evolution so far as animal world is concerned.[7],

3.      An Arabic newspaper “Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa with Muhammad Abduh” in 1884

Educational Reforms

Jamal al din al Afghani gave much importance to philosophical method and approach in intellectual learning to preserve a civilization by adopting research, exploration and enquiry. Moreover, he provided justification for downfall of Islamic civilization owing to abandonment of the philosophical approach from the sphere of knowledge. He urged and stressed to study and apply philosophy with a view to preserve, nurture and promote Muslim societies as it was the only way to empirical sciences. He says:

“Philosophy is the escape from the narrow sensations of animality into the wide arena of human feelings. It is the removal of the darkness of bestial superstitions with the light of natural intelligence; the transformation of blindness and lack of insight into clear-sightedness and insight. It is salvation from savagery and barbarism, ignorance and foolishness, by entry into the virtuous city of knowledge and skillfulness. In general, it is man’s becoming man and living the life of sacred rationality. Its aim is human perfection in reason, mind, soul, and way of life. Perfection in one’s way of life and welfare in livelihood are the chief preconditions for the perfection of mind and soul. [Philosophy] is the first cause of man’s intellectual activity and emergence from the sphere of animals, and it is the greatest reason for the transfer of tribes and peoples from a state of nomadism and savagery to culture and civilization. It is the foremost cause of the production of knowledge, the creation of sciences, the invention of industries, and initiation of crafts.”[8]

Al-Afghani condemned Muslim communities for not making scientific progress during his time, however, they spent greatly on so called modernization by Muslims rulers such as constructing huge palaces. Consequently, it gave birth to overall social, political and educational stagnation owing to lack of philosophic approach within the education system itself. Hence, he attempted to introduce and nurture philosophical thinking amongst intellectual community to follow same path of the west in terms of progress and development. For instance, he urged to abolish culture of silence and mental laziness by introducing philosophy as subject into teaching-learning processes at every institute of Muslim community, to introduce culture of inquiry and serious deliberation to fulfill basic material needs of human beings, and to attain civilizational advancement by creating new scientific knowledge, and advanced technical skills leading to industrialization.[9] Moreover, he argued in favor of using philosophical approach as tool to uplift social conditions of human beings with a view to eradicate poverty, to improve health and education. For instance, the West had attained the stage of industrial development and uplifted social conditions of their people through scientific and philosophical knowledge. Notwithstanding, he gave an argument in support of philosophy that aims at dealing with needs, state of material conditions and cause and effect stimulating mind of an individual.[10]

Similarly, he claimed in his lecture, delivered in 1882 on “Lecture on Teaching and Learning” that science rules the world owing to its unprejudiced character. Moreover, he denied dichotomy between Muslim science and European science by explaining the relation of human beings to science irrespective of cast, creed, religion, and ethnicity. For instance, technological inventions, voyage discoveries, and natural exploration have served benefitting all human beings. He emphasized using empirical method in finding the truth[11] and assumed to bring reforms in religion at state level for bringing social change in society. However, he suggested philosophical education is needed to be accessed by common people enabling them to systematically find the scientific truth. Moreover, he provided the way to achieve same success through empirical study and understanding of nature and anticipated progress with the subject of philosophy alone.[12] He considered education good if it produces excellence and man of character and it is bad if it destroys, and sinks society into decline and decadence.[13]

Educational Reforms of Jamal al din al Afghani had laid great impact on social reformers of the time especially in Egypt. These included: Moḥammad ʿAbdoh, Saʿd Zaḡlūl of Egypt, and Muhammad Iqbal of South Asia during twentieth century. They played important roles in creating awareness amongst intelligentsia of their respective countries.

Conclusion

Al-Afghani discussion is certainly relevant with his time. To attain scientific and technological advancement in a society, it needs creative, critical, and independent thinking. Moreover, this kind of thinking can only be fostered by making philosophy compulsory from beginning as subject in educational curricula. Furthermore, it functions as tool to critically re-assess and revaluate socio-political ideas invogue in the society. It also promotes analytical study of complex structure and changing objective realities that leads to sort out problems and to seek viable and alternate solutions of the problems.

Bibliography

Published Books

1.      Shahid, Hussain, Razaqi., [1979]: Sayed Jamal Al Din Afghani Hayat o Afkar. Al Hamra Art Printer, Lahore

2.      T, F, Glick., [1974]: The Comparative Reception of Darwinism, University of Chicago  Press, USA

3.      Nikki. R. Keddie.,[1972]: Sayyid Jamal al-Din Afghani: A Political Biography. Berkeley University of California Press, California

4.      Nikki. R. Keddie.,[1968]: An Islamic Response to Imperialism , University of California Press, USA

Magazines/ Journals/ Newspapers

1.      Nikki R. Keddie.,[2004]: Imperialism, Science and Religion: Two Essays by Jamal al-Din al-Afghani. Translation by Islamfiche, Modern Middle East Sourcebook Project, Egypt

Internet Websites

1.       http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/afgani-jamal-al-din

2.       http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H048

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[1] Razaqi, H, S., Sayed Jamal Al Din Afghani Hayat o Afkar. Al Hamra Art Printer, Lahore 1979, pp 10-11

[2] Ibid., p 21

[3] Ibid.

[4] Ibid., p 22

[5] http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/afgani-jamal-al-din accessed on May 30, 2014

[6] http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H048  accessed on May 30, 2014

[7] Glick,F, T., The Comparative Reception of Darwinism, University of Chicago Press, 1974. pp 375-87

[8] Keddie,R,N., Sayyid Jamal al-Din Afghani: A Political Biography. Berkeley University of California Press, California 1972, p 163-164

[9] Keddie,R,N., Imperialism, Science and Religion: Two Essays by Jamal al-Din al-Afghani. Translation by Islamfiche, Modern Middle East Sourcebook Project 2004, p 2

[10] Keddie,R.,N., An Islamic Response to Imperialism: Political and Religious Writings of Sayyid Jamal al-Din “al-Afghani”, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983

[11] Keddie, R.,N., An Islamic Response to Imperialism , University of California Press, 1968. P. 107

[12] Ibid. 109-123

[13] Ibid. p 123